In recent years, the increasing density of microelectronic devices on integrated circuits has lead to a technological bottleneck in the density of metallic signal lines that can be used to interconnect these devices. In addition, the use of metallic signal lines yields a significant increase in power consumption and difficulties with synchronizing the longest links positioned on top of most circuits. Rather than transmitting information as electrical signals via signal lines, the same information can be encoded in electromagnetic radiation (“ER”) and transmitted via waveguides, such as optical fibers, ridge waveguides, and photonic crystal waveguides. Transmitting information encoded in ER via waveguides has a number of advantages over transmitting electrical signals via signal lines. First, degradation or loss is much less for ER transmitted via waveguides than for electrical signals transmitted via signal lines. Second, waveguides can be fabricated to support a much higher bandwidth than signal lines. For example, a single Cu or Al wire can only transmit a single electrical signal, while a single optical fiber can be configured to transmit about 100 or more differently encoded ER.
Recently, advances in materials science and semiconductor fabrication techniques have made it possible to develop photonic devices that can be integrated with electronic devices, such as CMOS circuits, to form photonic integrated circuits (“PICs”). The term “photonic” refers to devices that can operate with either classically characterized electromagnetic radiation or quantized electromagnetic radiation with frequencies that span the electromagnetic spectrum. PICs are the photonic equivalent of electronic integrated circuits and may be implemented on a wafer of semiconductor material. In order to effectively implement PICs, passive and active photonic components are needed. Waveguides and attenuators are examples of passive photonic components that can typically be fabricated using conventional epitaxial and lithographic methods and may be used to direct the propagation of ER between microelectronic devices. Physicists and engineers have recognized a need for active photonic components, such as ER emitting devices and modulators, that can be implemented in PICs and other photonic devices.